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Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.)

Topic Areas
Scientific Rating
Child Welfare Relevance
Parent Training Programs that Address Behavior Problems in Children and Adolescents
3  — Promising Research Evidence
Medium

About This Program

Target Population: Parents of children ages 0 to 18 with communication and behavior problems

For children/adolescents ages: 0 – 18

For parents/caregivers of children ages: 0 – 18

Program Overview

P.E.T.'s purpose is to offer parents a set of skills for developing and maintaining effective relationships with their children and others. Parents learn listening skills to help their children when they have problems, self-disclosure skills to help themselves when their children cause problems for them, and skills to resolve conflicts and problems so that both the parent and the child gets their needs met. Class time is devoted to learning the concepts through short lectures, roleplaying, practice in small groups and workbook exercises. Each parent receives a set of standardized participant materials which includes a copy of Dr. Thomas Gordon's Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) book.

Program Goals

The goals of Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) are:

  • Determine who "owns the problem" in a given situation
  • Identify the 12 Roadblocks to Communication
  • Distinguish between Roadblocks and Active Listening
  • Avoid the Roadblocks that cause most helping attempts to fail
  • Recognize when their child needs their help as a skilled listener
  • Use silence, acknowledgments, and door-openers to help their child with a problem
  • Actively listen to hear their child's feelings
  • Actively listen to clarify information
  • Distinguish between Acceptable and Unacceptable Behavior
  • Determine what to do when a child's behavior is interfering with the parent's meeting their needs

Logic Model

The program representative did not provide information about a Logic Model for Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Essential Components

The essential components of Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) include:

  • Six key skills will be learned:
    • Identification of Problem Ownership to understand and manage problems
    • Active Listening to enable their children and others to solve their own problems
    • I-Messages to confront others' unacceptable behavior resulting in the other changing his or her behavior
    • Gear Shifting to overcome resistance to change
    • Resolution of conflicts with their children and others so both are satisfied with the solution
    • Values Collision Skills to resolve values collisions with their children and others
  • Balance of instructor presentations, group discussions, individual sharing, and skill-building activities
  • Group-based program and recommends 12-20 parents per group

Program Delivery

Child/Adolescent Services

Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) directly provides services to children/adolescents and addresses the following:

  • Withdrawn or non-communicative, demonstrates anger (e.g., temper tantrums, outbursts), difficulty making or maintaining commitments/rules, difficulty making decisions, difficulty solving conflicts, difficulty expressing needs and emotions, and experiencing sibling rivalry

Parent/Caregiver Services

Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) directly provides services to parents/caregivers and addresses the following:

  • Use of physical or verbal punishment, power struggles, a need to address recurring problems, inability to modify undesirable behaviors of child, and feeling subservient to the child

Recommended Intensity:

3 hours per week

Recommended Duration:

8 weeks - 24 hours total, usually taught in 8 sessions

Delivery Settings

This program is typically conducted in a(n):

  • Community Daily Living Setting
  • Community-based Agency / Organization / Provider
  • School Setting (Including: Day Care, Day Treatment Programs, etc.)

Homework

Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) includes a homework component:

Practice of communication and conflict resolution skills learned in class, reading, and writing journal entries

Languages

Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) has materials available in a language other than English:

Spanish

For information on which materials are available in this language, please check on the program's website or contact the program representative (contact information is listed at the bottom of this page).

Resources Needed to Run Program

The typical resources for implementing the program are:

A/V and Flip Charts (2), chairs for each participant and Instructor, enough space to break out into small group exercises (approx. 500 square feet or more for full classes)

Manuals and Training

Prerequisite/Minimum Provider Qualifications

Attendance and successful completion of a 5-day P.E.T. Instructor Training Workshop and successfully teaching one P.E.T. course. A high school education is required.

Manual Information

There is a manual that describes how to deliver this program.

Training Information

There is training available for this program.

Training Contact:
Training Type/Location:

Both on-site and regional are available.

Number of days/hours:

For groups of 1-4 people, the training is 3 full days. For groups of 5 or more people, the training is 5 full days.

Implementation Information

Pre-Implementation Materials

There are no pre-implementation materials to measure organizational or provider readiness for Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Formal Support for Implementation

There is no formal support available for implementation of Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Fidelity Measures

There are no fidelity measures for Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Implementation Guides or Manuals

There are no implementation guides or manuals for Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Research on How to Implement the Program

Research has not been conducted on how to implement Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.).

Relevant Published, Peer-Reviewed Research

Child Welfare Outcome: Child/Family Well-Being

A meta-analyses has been conducted on P.E.T.:

When more than 10 research articles have been published in peer-reviewed journals, the CEBC reviews all of the articles as part of the rating process and identifies the most relevant articles, with a focus on randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and controlled studies that have an impact on the rating. The articles chosen for P.E.T. are summarized below:

Mitchell, J., & McManis, D. L. (1977). Effects of PET on authoritarian attitudes toward childrearing in parents and non-parents. Psychological Reports, 41, 215–218. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1977.41.1.215

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 78

Population:

  • Age — 20–43 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — 100% White
  • Gender — 100% Female
  • Status — Participants were college students on at least a part-time basis, or volunteers from the fields of education, psychology, nursing, and other mental health areas.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine changes in authoritarian attitudes toward child-rearing in women who received standard Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.). Participants were either enrolled in the standard P.E.T. only, read the P.E.T. book, or did neither of the interventions. Measures utilized include the Parent Attitude Research Instrument (PARI). Results indicate that both parents and non-parents receiving standard P.E.T. expressed significantly less authoritarian attitudes, while in the book-reading group only parents showed a comparable significant change. Parents receiving standard P.E.T. showed significantly greater changes than non-parents receiving standard P.E.T., and non-parents receiving standard P.E.T. did not change significantly more than parents who only read the P.E.T. book. Limitations include nonrandomization of subjects and concerns about generalizability due to socio-economic status and gender.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Therrien, M. E. (1979). Evaluating empathy skill training for parents. Social Work, 24(5), 417–419. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/24.5.417

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 30

Population:

  • Age — Not specified
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parents interested in gaining empathy through the Parent Effectiveness Training program.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) program on parental empathy. Participants were parents who agreed to participate in the P.E.T. classes and other parents not participating in the P.E.T program who agreed to complete the pretest, posttest, and follow-up test measures. Measure utilized include the Traux Accurate Empathy Scale. Results indicate that parents who participated in the P.E.T. program were able to function at higher levels of empathy and that these skills were maintained over a period of time. The results of this study also confirmed previous studies that empathy can be taught in a relatively short period of time. Limitations include the nonrandomization of participants and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 4 months.

Schultz, C. L., & Nystul, M. S. (1980). Mother-child interaction behavior as an outcome of theoretical models of parent group education. Journal of Individual Psychology, 36(1), 3–15. https://www.proquest.com/openview/d05dc4945c15ea7d6897ec6793d9c668/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816607

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 47 mother-child dyads

Population:

  • Age — Children: 4–8 years; Parents: 23–50 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — 100% Caucasian
  • Gender — Children: 32 Male and 15 Female; Parents: Not specified
  • Status — Participants were children who have behavioral issues.

Location/Institution: University of Tasmania, Australia

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to measure the ability of three models of parent group education: Behavioral Modification (BMod), Adelerian Mother Study Groups (APs), and Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) to influence mother-child interaction as measured by structured tasks recorded by video. Participants were enrolled in the P.E.T. program, BMod, or the Adlerian Mother Study Group (APS). Measures utilized include the PET/YET Analog Scales, the Hereford Parent Attitude Survey, the Self-Esteem Inventory, and the FIRO-B. Results indicate there were significantly greater improvement in conflict resolution skills from pretraining to posttraining in the experimental group compared to the matched control group, for both children and parents. No significant changes were found in the Parent Attitude Survey, the Self- Esteem Inventory, or the FIRO-B. Limitations include the nonrandomization of participants and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Pinsker, M., & Geoffrey K. (1981). A comparison of PET and behavior modification parent training. Family Relations, 30(1), 61–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/584237

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 40

Population:

  • Age — Not specified
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parents of children with behavior disorders.

Location/Institution: Chesterfield, VA

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to compare a behavior modification parent training workshop and the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) program. Participants were assigned to one of three groups on the basis of geographical considerations: Group 1 followed the Behavior Modification parent training workshop format and was composed of subjects residing within the geographical area of elementary school I, Group 2 used the format outline in P.E.T. and were from elementary school II, and Group 3 acted as the control group and were from elementary school III. Measures utilized include the Problem Checklist, the Tennessee Self-concept Scale, the Behavior Modification Cognitive Scale, the Parent Training Effectiveness Cognitive Scale, and the Moos Family Environment Scale. Results indicate that there was a highly significant difference between the P.E.T. and the control group in the acquisition of cognitive skills in applying P.E.T. Results also indicate that the Behavior Modification workshop format effectively reduced deviant child behaviors and parental perceptions of problem child behaviors, whereas the P.E.T. group effectively increased positive parental consequences, family cohesion, and decreased family conflict. Both the Behavior Modification workshop format and P.E.T. groups significantly increased their respective knowledge of the techniques involved. Limitations include the nonrandomization of participants and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Giannotti, T. J., & Doyle, R. E. (1982). The effectiveness of parental training on learning disabled children and their parents. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 17(2), 131–136. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1983-24404-001

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 92

Population:

  • Age — Not specified
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parents of learning-disabled children who were enrolled in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades.

Location/Institution: Suburban New York

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) in parents of learning-disabled children. Participants were randomly assigned by couples into P.E.T or a control group. Measures utilized include the Parent Attitude Survey (PAS), the Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI), the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PHCSCS), and the Devereux Elementary School Behavior Rating Scale (DESBRS). Results indicate that postintervention scores on the Parent Attitude Survey showed a significant improvement on all 5 scales, with parents in the P.ET. group reporting more confidence in themselves as parents; greater awareness of the effects of their behavior on children; and more acceptance, understanding, and trust of their children. Similar results were obtained on the Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory. The Piers-Harris Children' Self-Concept Scale also showed a significant difference in favor of the children whose parents received training; teacher ratings on the Devereux Elementary School Behavior Rating Scale indicated that these children showed less achievement anxiety and external reliance and more actively sought out positive relationships with their classroom teachers. Limitations include the small sample size, reliance on self-reported measures, and lack of follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Taylor, P. B., & Swan, R. W. (1982). Parent Effectiveness Training: Adolescents' responses. Psychological Reports, 51(1), 331–338. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1982.51.1.331

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 30

Population:

  • Age — Not specified
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parents of behaviorally disordered children.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) as a child rearing strategy for adolescents. Participants were either trained in P.E.T. or were in a matched control group. Measures utilized include the Parent Effectiveness Training Test. Results indicate that the data did not support the claim that trained parents were any better equipped to use P.E.T. techniques than parents who had no training. The reports of adolescents of parents trained in P.E.T. confirmed that their parents did not use P.E.T. techniques with high frequency in the home. Limitations include the nonrandomization and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Root, R. W., & Levant, R. F. (1984). An evaluation of Parent Effectiveness Training for rural parents. Journal of Rural Community Psychology, 5(2), 45–54.

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 30 adults

Population:

  • Age — Experimental Group: Mean=34.83 years; Control Group: Mean=34.00 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — 4 Male
  • Status — Participants were parents of behaviorally disordered children.

Location/Institution: Rural Northeastern Vermont

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the changes in attitudes towards childrearing of rural parents taking a Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) course. Participants were enrolled in P.E.T. or in a matched control group. Measures utilized include the Hereford Parent Attitude Survey (HPAS) and the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI). Results indicate that no significant changes were found in the career maturity and grades of children whose parents took the course; however, significant changes in parental attitudes towards childrearing were found. Limitations include the nonrandomization and the lack of a placebo control group.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 months.

Wood, C. D., & Davidson, J. A. (1987). PET: An outcome study. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage & Family, 8(3), 134–141. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-33464-001

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 9

Population:

  • Age — 30–40 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parents of behaviorally disordered children.

Location/Institution: University of Tasmania, Australia

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) program to show changes in parental attitude and cognitive skills. Participants were enrolled in P.E.T. or a matched control group. Measures utilized include the Parent-Child Response Sheet, Parent Attitude Scale, and the Moos Family Environment Scale. Results indicate that there was a highly significant difference between P.E.T. and the control group in the acquisition of cognitive skills in applying P.E.T.. Results also indicate that large changes in parents' cognitions about situations closely related to the basic skills of active listening, confrontation, and conflict resolution. No differences in attitude change were found between the P.E.T. and control groups on the Moos Scales or a specially constructed Parent Attitude Scale. Considerable improvement was reported by parents in the P.E.T. group on specific goals identified at the commencement of the course. Limitations include the nonrandomization of participants and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Wood, C. D., & Davidson, J. A. (1993). Conflict resolution in the family: A PET evaluation study. Australian Psychologist, 28(2), 100–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050069308258883

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 24 parent-teenager pairs

Population:

  • Age — Parents: 39–53 years; Adolescents: 13–16 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were parent-teenager pairs where the adolescents had behavioral issues.

Location/Institution: University of Tasmania, Australia

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) program. Participants were enrolled in P.E.T. or in a matched control group. Measures utilized include the PET/YET Analog Scales, the Hereford Parent Attitude Survey, the Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior (FIRO-B). Results indicate that there was significantly greater improvement in conflict resolution skills from pre- to post-training in the experimental group compared to the matched control group for both adolescents and parents. No significant changes were found in the Parent Attitude Survey, the Self-Esteem Inventory, or the FIRO-B. Limitations include the nonrandomization of participants and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Additional References

Davidson, J. & Wood, C. (2004). A conflict resolution model. Theory Into Practice, 43(1), 1-13.

Doherty, W. G., & Ryder, R. G. l. (1980). Parent effectiveness training (P.E.T.): Criticisms and caveats. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 6, 409-419.

Rinn, R. C., & Markle, A. (1977). Parent Effectiveness Training: A review. Psychological Reports, 41, 95-109.

Contact Information

Lance Johnson
Agency/Affiliation: Gordon Training International
Website: www.gordontraining.com/parent-programs/parent-effectiveness-training-p-e-t
Email:
Phone: (858) 481-8121 x300
Fax: (858) 481-8125

Date Research Evidence Last Reviewed by CEBC: October 2023

Date Program Content Last Reviewed by Program Staff: June 2015

Date Program Originally Loaded onto CEBC: June 2013