Home Program

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS)

Topic Areas
Scientific Rating
Child Welfare Relevance
Disruptive Behavior Treatment (Child & Adolescent)
3  — Promising Research Evidence
Medium
Mental Health Prevention and/or Early Intervention (Child & Adolescent) Programs
3  — Promising Research Evidence
Medium

About This Program

Target Population: Low- and middle-income 4-12 year old students, including African-Americans, Caucasians, Hispanic, and Asian populations

For children/adolescents ages: 4 – 12

Program Overview

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) is a preventive and rehabilitative program designed to lessen disruptive behaviors. It is a cognitive approach that teaches children ages 4 to 12 how to think, not what to think, in ways that help them learn to resolve interpersonal problems that arise with peers and adults. They learn that behavior has causes, that people have feelings, and that there is more than one way to solve a problem. The curriculum is divided into two parts:

  • Pre-problem solving skills -- learning a problem solving vocabulary, identifying one's own and others' feelings, and considering another's point of view
  • Problem solving skills -- thinking of more than one solution, considering consequences, and age-appropriate sequencing and planning skills.

Adults learn a problem solving approach to handling conflicts and other problem situations that helps children associate their newly acquired problem solving skills with what they do and how they behave in real life.


Program Goals

The goals of I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) are:

  • Improve Interpersonal Cognitive Problem Solving (ICPS) skills:
    • Alternative solution thinking
    • Consequential thinking
    • Sequenced planning (means-ends thinking) skills, if 8-12 years old
  • Prevent or reduce early high-risk behaviors:
    • Physical, verbal, and relational aggression
    • Inability to wait and cope with frustration
    • Social withdrawal
  • Foster genuine empathy and concern for others
  • Foster positive peer relations
  • Increase cooperation and fairness that promote healthy relationships with peers and adults
  • Improve academic achievement as an outgrowth of less stress fostered by ICPS skills that allow children to concentrate on the task-oriented demands of the classroom

Logic Model

The program representative did not provide information about a Logic Model for I Can Problem Solve (ICPS).

Essential Components

The essential components of I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) include:

  • ICPS is implemented by teachers with groups of children directly in the classroom, teaching them skills to solve interpersonal problems and that help guide their behavior, including disruptive behaviors. Groups of 8 or 10 children are ideal in preschool, and groups of 15 in kindergarten through grade 6. However, teachers have conducted the lessons with whole classes of 30 children.
  • School psychologists and guidance counselors are also trained to work directly with high-risk children to reinforce the problem solving concepts the children are learning in the classroom.
  • Formal Lessons in the Classroom
    • Children learn pre-problem solving and problem solving skills through games, stories, puppets, illustrations, and role-plays
    • An ICPS vocabulary sets the stage for problem solving thinking. For example, children play with the words "not", "same", and "different" in fun ways (e.g., "Johnny is painting. Is Peter painting or not painting?" "Are they doing the same thing or something different?") When a problem comes up, the child can be asked, "Do you and Peter see what happened the same way or a different way?" "Is that a good idea or not a good idea?" If the idea is not a good one, the child or children are asked, "Can you think of a different way to tell him what you want?"
    • Lessons are sequenced and build toward using vocabulary words to identify age-appropriate feelings, such as "Is Johnny happy or sad?" "Is Johnny feeling the same way or a different way from Robert?"
    • Using vocabulary words and feeling concepts, children practice the final problem solving skills to be learned: alternative solution, consequential, and age-appropriate sequenced planning skills.
    • Children learn to think of their own ideas to solve a problem in light of how they and others feel, what might happen next (consequences), and, if needed, to think of a different way to solve the same problem.
  • Interaction in the Classroom
    • Children learn to use ICPS concepts during everyday classroom interactions.
    • The program implementer learns a whole new way of communicating with students -- using special ICPS dialoguing techniques (problem-solving talk) when situations arise in real life with peers, siblings, parents, teachers, etc.
    • Four styles of communication are depicted on the rungs of a ladder, and adults enjoy "climbing up the ICPS ladder".
      • Rung 1: Power, including yelling, commanding, demanding
      • Rung 2: Suggestions, including statements such as "You should share your toys."
      • Rung 3: Explanations, such as, "You might hurt him if you hit him."
      • Rung 4: Problem Solving, turning statements into questions, such as, "How do you think Amy feels now?" "What happened when you (hit) her?" "How do you feel about that?" "Can you think of something different to do so you both won't feel that way, and that won't happen?"
      • Rungs 2 and 3 are positive, but the adult is doing the thinking and feeling for the child. On Rung 4, problem solving is a two-way dialogue, involves the child, and empowers the child by giving him/her skills to think for himself/herself. This way of communicating is called ICPS Dialoguing.
  • Integration into the Curriculum
    • In schools or settings where children are doing homework, they learn to use ICPS concepts as they work on math, reading, science, social studies, and other subjects. For example, children can use age-appropriate memory cards, where a match may be 5X5 for the card with the number 25, or Harrisburg, for the card with the word Pennsylvania. While practicing paying attention, they are also working with numbers, capitols, science concepts, or any topic relevant to the child or children in the group.
  • A companion program for parents, Raising a Thinking Child, is available, but is not part of the school-based ICPS program as highlighted here. The program helps parents teach their children interpersonal cognitive problem solving and social emotional skills. Raising a Thinking Child is available in English and Spanish.

Program Delivery

Child/Adolescent Services

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) directly provides services to children/adolescents and addresses the following:

  • Physical, verbal, and relational aggression; inability to wait and cope with frustration; social withdrawal; lack of empathy and good peer relations; ADHD; Asperger's Syndrome

Recommended Intensity:

For preschool children, ideal is daily for 20 minutes. If conducted in schools, kindergarten through grade 6 is usually 3 days per week, for one 40-minute period.

Recommended Duration:

The formal lessons last about three months in preschool, four months 3 times a week in grade school. The use of the program's problem solving approach, when real problems come up, continues throughout the year.

Delivery Setting

This program is typically conducted in a(n):

  • School Setting (Including: Day Care, Day Treatment Programs, etc.)

Homework

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) includes a homework component:

The program does not include component called "homework," but activities are sent home with children from the Intermediate Elementary Manual.

Resources Needed to Run Program

The typical resources for implementing the program are:

In preschool and kindergarten, a corner large enough for 8 to 15 children in an area free of distractions (e.g., books, toys, bulletin boards). In preschool and kindergarten, where a teacher-aide may be present, it is ideal for the aide to learn the program so as to keep ICPS Dialoguing -- use of the problem solving approach -- consistent when handling problems that come up in real life.

Manuals and Training

Prerequisite/Minimum Provider Qualifications

None, as long as they are able to relate in positive ways with children.

Manual Information

There is a manual that describes how to deliver this program.

Training Information

There is training available for this program.

Training Contact:
Training Type/Location:

Onsite for facilitators; train-the-trainer workshops onsite, nationwide

Number of days/hours:

Facilitator Workshops: 1 or 2 days; preferably 2 days
Train-the-Trainer Workshops: 3 days

Implementation Information

Pre-Implementation Materials

There are pre-implementation materials to measure organizational or provider readiness for I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) as listed below:

Pre-implementation ICPS Readiness Checklists are available to measure and determine organizational or provider readiness for the I Can Problem Solve program.

Formal Support for Implementation

There is formal support available for implementation of I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) as listed below:

Dr. Myrna Shure, in partnership with ICPS Programs at the Center for Schools and Communities in Camp Hill, PA, a group of international trainers provides train-the-trainer workshops, personal coaching in individual classrooms, training of onsite coaches, consultation, and technical assistance as needed. Contact Stephanie Colvin-Roy at sroy@csc.csiu.org or (717) 763-1661 ext. 209.

Fidelity Measures

There are fidelity measures for I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) as listed below:

A fidelity checklist, ICPS Program Planner, (Pre/Post) Implementer Self Questionnaire and (Pre/Post) Childhood Behavior Rating Scale are all available to those attending a train-the-trainer workshop. The checklist consists of evaluating the extent to which a teacher, or adult implementer, teaches the concepts as intended and uses a problem-solving approach when handling problems that come up in real life.

Implementation Guides or Manuals

There are implementation guides or manuals for I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) as listed below:

I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) training manuals are available for three age groups from Research Press at http://www.researchpress.com:

  • Preschool, Kindergarten and the Primary Grades, and Intermediate Elementary Grades. The training manuals can be ordered from the website, or by email at orders@researchpress.com or by calling 1-800-519-2707. Access to ordering can also be found at http://www.thinkingchild.com (home page) under the photos of the covers of the manuals.
  • A Facilitator's Guide is available for educators who participate in the Train-the-Trainer workshops. This includes activities, power points, handouts, a mini-guide for administrators, counselors, school psychologists, nurses and other support personnel.
  • There is also an administrator's guide that describes the role of the principal in the implementation of ICPS in his/her school. It also describes roles for the other administrators and a school leadership team consisting of the school psychologist, counselor, nurse, social worker, or any other student-support personnel.

Research on How to Implement the Program

Research has not been conducted on how to implement I Can Problem Solve (ICPS).

Relevant Published, Peer-Reviewed Research

Child Welfare Outcome: Child/Family Well-Being

Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1979). Interpersonal cognitive problem solving and primary prevention: Programming for preschool and kindergarten children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 8(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374417909532894

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 131

Population:

  • Age — 4–5 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — 100% African American
  • Gender — 59% Female
  • Status — Participants were nursery school and kindergarten students.

Location/Institution: Philadelphia, PA

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of this study was to examine whether enhancing interpersonal cognitive problem-solving skills of four- and five-year-olds could improve inhibited and impulsive behaviors when they already exist and prevent them from emerging when they do not exist. Participants were students at nursery schools, which were assigned to deliver the I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) intervention, or to serve as a control group; these same children were assigned to ICPS or control groups in kindergarten as well. Measures utilized include the Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving (PIPS) Test, the What Happens Next Game (WHNG), and the Hahnemann Preschool Behavior (HPSB) Rating Scale. Results indicate that ICPS training does reduce and prevent inhibited and impulsive behaviors and that the ICPS and the behavioral impact of such programming lasts at least one full year following intervention. Results also show that for youngsters not trained during nursery school, kindergarten is not too late for training. Limitations include the lack of randomization, concerns about the generalizability of results to other racial/ethnic groups, and the small sample sizes.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1980). Interpersonal problem solving as a mediator of behavioral adjustment in preschool and kindergarten children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(80)90060-X

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 219

Population:

  • Age — 4–5 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — 100% African American
  • Gender — Not specified
  • Status — Participants were nursery school and kindergarten students.

Location/Institution: Philadelphia, PA

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Shure & Spivack (1979). The purpose of the study was to examine the mediating function of interpersonal cognitive problem-solving skills on behavioral adjustment in preschool and kindergarten children. Participants were students at schools which were assigned to deliver the I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) intervention, or to serve as a control group. Measures utilized include the Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving (PIPS) Test, the What Happens Next Game (WHNG), and the Hahnemann Preschool Behavior (HPSB) Rating Scale. Results indicate that, relative to controls, nursery-trained youngsters improved in three interpersonal cognitive problem-solving skills, while kindergarten-trained improved in two. In both the nursery- and kindergarten-trained groups, increased ability to conceptualize alternative solutions to interpersonal problems significantly related to improved social adjustment. Consequential thinking also emerged as a clear behavioral mediator, especially among kindergarten-aged youngsters. Improvement in behavior could not, however, be attributed to change in causal thinking skills. Limitations include the lack of randomization, concerns about the generalizability of results to other racial/ethnic groups, and the small sample sizes.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Mannarino, A. P., Christy, M., Durlak, J. A., & Magnussen, M. G. (1982). Evaluation of social competence training in the schools. Journal of School Psychology, 20(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-4405(82)90036-X

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 64

Population:

  • Age — 6.5–8.8 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — 42 Male and 22 Female
  • Status — Participants were children with elevated levels of school maladjustment in grades one through three.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to describe and evaluate a social competence program for high-risk children. Participants were randomly assigned to I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) or a control group. Measures utilized include– the Acting Out/Mood/Learning scale (AML) and the Classroom Adjustment Rating Scale (CARS). Results indicate that the ICPS participants made significant gains in classroom adjustment as rated by teachers compared to the participants in the control group. Limitations include the lack of direct measurement of interpersonal problem-solving skills, the lack of an attention control, and possible teacher bias in ratings.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1982). Interpersonal problem solving in young children: A cognitive approach to prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10(3), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00896500

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 219

Population:

  • Age — 3 years 11 months to 4 years 10 months at study start
  • Race/Ethnicity — 100% African American
  • Gender — 56% Female
  • Status — Participants were nursery school and kindergarten students.

Location/Institution: Philadelphia, PA

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Shure & Spivack (1979). The purpose of the study was to examine whether utilizing an interpersonal cognitive problem-solving intervention [I Can Problem Solve (ICPS)] reduced and prevented impulsive and inhibited behaviors skills of four- and five-year-olds. Participants were examined in 4 groups: Twice training (nursery and kindergarten), Once trained Nursery, Once trained Kindergarten, and Never trained (control group). Measures utilized include the Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving (PIPS) Test, the What Happens Next Game (WHNG), and the Hahnemann Preschool Behavior (HPSB) Rating Scale. Results indicate that the impact on behavior from ICPS lasted at least 1 full year, training was as effective in kindergarten as in nursery, and for this sample, 1 year of intervention had the same immediate behavior impact as 2. Further, well-adjusted children trained in nursery were less likely to begin showing behavioral difficulties over the 2-year period than were comparable controls. Limitations include the lack of randomization, concerns about the generalizability of results to other racial/ethnic groups, concerns about teacher rater bias, and the small sample sizes.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Dincer, C., & Guneysu, S. E. (1997). Examining the effects of problem- solving training on the acquisition of interpersonal problem-solving skills by 5-year-old children in Turkey. International Journal of Early Years Education, 5(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966976970050104

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 74

Population:

  • Age — 5 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — 54% Male
  • Status — Participants were kindergarten students.

Location/Institution: Ankara, Turkey

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of the I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) training on the acquisition of interpersonal problem-solving skills by 5-year-old children. Classrooms were selected for the ICPS or control groups. Measures utilized include the Preschool Interpersonal Problem-Solving test (PIPS). Results indicate that children in the ICPS classrooms made significantly greater improvements on the PIPS, as compared to children in the control group. Limitations include the lack of randomization and the small sample size.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Tait, C., & Turner, C. (2002). Effectiveness of school-based family and children's skills training for substance abuse prevention among 6-8-year-old rural children. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(4, Suppl), S65–S71. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.16.4S.S65

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 655

Population:

  • Age — 6.5–8.8 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — 87% Caucasian and 8% Hispanic
  • Gender — 47% Male and 53% Female
  • Status — Participants were children in 1st grade from 12 schools in two school districts.

Location/Institution: Rocky Mountain region of the United States

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a multicomponent prevention program with 1st graders in rural schools. Classrooms were randomly assigned to one of four groups: I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) program alone, ICPS combined with the full Strengthening Families (SF) program, ICPS combined with a partial version of SF consisting of only the parent training course, or a no treatment control group. Measures utilized include the Behavioral Assessment for Children (BASC), the Parent Report on School Climate (PRSC), the Parent and Teacher Involvement Questionnaire (PTIQ), the Parenting Practices Scale (PPS), the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire, the Family Relations Scale, the Parent Observation of Classroom Adaptation—Revised (POCA–R), and the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation—Revised (TOCA–R). Results indicate that the combined ICPS and SF program showed significantly larger improvements and effect sizes on school bonding, parenting skills, family relationships, social competency, and behavioral self-regulation, compared with ICPS-alone or no-treatment controls. Adding parenting-only improved social competency and self-regulations more but negatively impacted family relationships, whereas adding SF improved family relationships, parenting, and school bonding more. An improvement in self-regulation was observed in all three intervention groups in comparison with the control group. Improvement in school bonding from the preintervention to the postintervention was significantly larger in the ICPS-alone group in comparison with the control group. Limitations include that less than a quarter of families assigned to the intervention groups actually enrolled and the large sample size differences between the three intervention groups.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

dos Santos Elias, L. C., Marturano, E. M., de Almeida Motta, A. M., & Giurlani, A. G. (2003). Treating boys with low achievement and behavior problems: Comparison of two kinds of intervention. Psychological Reports, 92(1), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2003.92.1.105

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 39

Population:

  • Age — 8–11 years
  • Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
  • Gender — 100% Male
  • Status — Participants were males with behavior and academic problems in Southern Brazil referred by health professionals.

Location/Institution: Southern Brazil

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of the interpersonal problem-solving skills program [now called I Can Problem Solve (ICPS)] to improve behavior and academic achievement in a sample of elementary school males presenting with behavior problems and poor school performance. Participants were randomly assigned the ICPS group or a control language workshop group; mothers of all subjects received training on handling child behavior programs. Measures utilized include the Rutter Child Scale A, the Brazilian School Achievement Test, and the Child’s Interpersonal Problem-solving Test. Results indicate that participants in the ICPS group improved significantly more than the control group on most measures, including school achievement and behavior problems. Limitations include the small sample size, concerns about generalizability to other populations, and the possible impacts of the mothers’ training.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Boyle, D. & Hassett-Walker, C. (2008). Reducing overt and relational aggression among young children: The results from a two-year outcome evaluation. Journal of School Violence, 7(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1300/J202v07n01_03

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 226

Population:

  • Age — Not specified. Participants were in kindergarten at the start of the study.
  • Race/Ethnicity — 85% Hispanic, 6% African American, 5% White, and 4% Asian
  • Gender — 54% Female
  • Status — Participants were students in kindergarten classes in an urban school district.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the use of the I Can Problem Solve (ICPS) universal prevention program training on kindergarten and first grade children in a racially and ethnically diverse urban school district. Matched pairs of schools were randomly assigned to ICPS or a control group. Measures utilized include the Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving (PIPS) Test and the Hahnemann Preschool Behavior (HPSB) Rating Scale. Results indicate that ICPS training reduced aggressive behaviors and increased prosocial behaviors. The mean change scores of both scales showed a significant additive effect, with children receiving two years of ICPS instruction showing greater improvement than both children receiving one year of ICPS instruction as well as the two-year control students. Limitations include attrition, especially among the control group where two of the schools dropped out of the study; and possible teacher/rater bias on the teacher report measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Additional References

Shure, M. B. (1999). Preventing violence the problem solving way. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, DC.

Shure, M. B. (1992). Children who behave differently, think differently: Handling conflicts the problem solving way. New Jersey Education Association Review, pp. 10-13.

Shure, M. B. (2007). Bullies and their victims: A problem solving approach to treatment and prevention. 2nd Edition. In S. Goldstein & Brooks, R. B. (Eds.). Understanding and managing children's classroom behavior (pp. 408-431). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Contact Information

Stephanie Colvin-Roy
Agency/Affiliation: Center for Schools and Communities/ICPS Programs
Website: www.icanproblemsolve.info
Email:
Phone: (717) 763-1661 x209
Fax: (717) 763-2083

Date Research Evidence Last Reviewed by CEBC: August 2023

Date Program Content Last Reviewed by Program Staff: April 2020

Date Program Originally Loaded onto CEBC: October 2012