Botvin, G. J., Renick, N. L., & Baker, E. (1983). The effects of scheduling format and booster sessions on a broad-spectrum psychosocial smoking prevention program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 6, 359–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00846324

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 902

Population:

• Age — Seventh graders (approx. 11–13 years)
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — Not specified
• Status — Participants were seventh grade junior high school students.

Location/Institution: Suburban New York

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to determine the efficacy of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program]. Participant schools were randomly assigned to one of the following conditions: (1) LST Smoking Prevention Program utilizing an integrated weekly scheduling format; (2) LST Smoking Prevention Program utilizing an intensive minicourse scheduling format; or (3) non-treatment control. Measures utilized include the Teenager's Self Test: Cigarette Smoking Scale, the Assertion Inventory, and questionnaires for self-reported alcohol and marijuana use. Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that LST was significantly more effective than the control group in preventing cigarette smoking in seventh graders. Limitations include limited follow-up, inability to determine which component of the program was most effective in smoking prevention, and the use of self-report measures of behavior change.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Tortu, S., & Botvin, E. M. (1990). Preventing adolescent drug abuse through a multimodal cognitive-behavioral approach: Results of a three-year study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(4), 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.58.4.437

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 4,466

Population:

• Age — Seventh graders (approx. 11–13 years)
• Race/Ethnicity — 91% White, 2% Black, 2% Hispanic, and 1% Native American
• Gender — 52% Male and 48% Female
• Status — Participants were from 56 junior high schools.

Location/Institution: Twenty-three schools in eastern New York State, nineteen schools from central New York State, and fourteen schools from Long Island

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to present one-year follow-up data from an evaluation study testing the effectiveness of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] in middle schools to prevent substance abuse. Participant schools were randomly assigned to receive either (a) the LST program with formal provider training and implementation feedback, (b) the LST program with videotaped provider training and no feedback, or (c) no treatment. Measures utilized include the Teenager's Self Test: Cigarette Smoking Scale, the Norwicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children, and questionnaires for alcohol and marijuana use. Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that LST was significantly effective in preventing cigarette smoking, marijuana use, and immoderate alcohol use. Prevention effects were also found for normative expectations and knowledge concerning substance use, interpersonal skills, and communication skills. Limitations include the failure of investigators to adequately consider issues related to the fidelity and completeness of program implementation, the absence of a more direct assessment of the skills taught in this prevention program, failure to maintain the unit of assignment/unit of analysis set, and high attrition.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 2 years.

Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., & Diaz, T. (1994). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority youths. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 8(2), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.8.2.116

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 639

Population:

• Age — Mean=12.7 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 48% African American, 37% Latino, 8% Other, 5% White, and 3% Asian
• Gender — 50% Male and 50% Female
• Status — Participants were from six inner-city junior high schools that served urban minority students from low-income families.

Location/Institution: New York City public schools

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to test the effectiveness of the Life Skills Training (LST) programs [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] among inner-city minority students from six New York City public schools. Participant schools were randomly assigned to receive (a) a generic skills training prevention approach (LST), (b) a culturally focused prevention approach (an adapted version of LST), or (c) an information-only control. Measures utilized include the Teenager's Self Test: Cigarette Smoking Scale, the Assertion Inventory, the Eysenck Risk Taking Scale, and questionnaires for self-reported drinking and illicit drug use. Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that the LST and culturally focused approaches have utility for inner-city, minority youths. The students in the prevention programs had significantly higher anti-drinking, anti-marijuana, and anti-cocaine and other drugs attitudes than the control group. Limitations include the inability to demonstrate efficacy on the skills measures (decision making, assertiveness, or life skills) for the life skills training or culturally focused intervention groups compared with the control group, small sample size, inability to determine the relative effectiveness of these prevention strategies for the various ethnic-racial subgroups represented in the sample, and the reliance on self-report data.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., Diaz, T., & Botvin, E. M. (1995). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority adolescents: Two-year follow-up results. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 9(3), 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.9.3.183

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 456

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grade 9
• Race/Ethnicity — 49% African American, 37% Latino, 7% Other, 5% White, and 3% Asian
• Gender — 53% Female and 47% Male
• Status — Participants were from six inner-city junior high schools that served urban minority students from low-income families.

Location/Institution: New York City public schools

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Botvin et al. (1994). The purpose of the study was to test the effectiveness of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program]. Participant schools were randomly assigned to receive (a) a generic skills training prevention approach (LST), (b) a culturally focused prevention approach (an adapted version of LST), or (c) an information-only control. Measures utilized include a questionnaire for self-reported current substance use and behavioral intentions for substance use. Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that predominantly minority adolescents in both prevention approaches had less current alcohol use and had lower intentions to engage in future alcohol use relative to students in the control group. Limitations include the inability to determine generalizability to other racial-ethnic minority populations, and the decision in this study to focus on two different populations, rather than on a single minority population to facilitate the implementation of a culturally focused intervention.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 2 years.

Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a White middle-class population. JAMA, 273(14), 1106–1112. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1995.03520380042033

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 3,597

Population:

• Age — Mean=18.1 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 91% White
• Gender — 52% Male and 48% Female
• Status — Participants were from 56 junior high schools.

Location/Institution: Predominantly middle-class suburban and rural schools clustered around Albany and Syracuse in upstate New York and on Long Island in downstate New York

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Botvin et al. (1990). The purpose of the study was to present six-year follow-up data from an evaluation study testing the effectiveness of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] in middle schools to prevent substance abuse. Participant schools were assigned to receive (1) LST with a formal 1-day training workshop and implementation feedback by project staff; (2) LST with training provided by videotape and no implementation feedback; or (3) a "treatment as usual" control group. Measures utilized include a questionnaire for self-reported tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. Results indicate that LST was significantly effective in preventing cigarette smoking, marijuana use, and immoderate alcohol use. Results also indicate that drug abuse prevention programs conducted during junior high school can produce meaningful and durable reductions in tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use if they (1) teach a combination of social resistance skills and general life skills, (2) are properly implemented, and (3) include at least 2 years of booster sessions. Limitations include lack of generalizability, as this study involved predominantly white, middle-class students, and a 40% attrition rate at follow-up.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 years.

Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., Diaz, T., & Ifill-Williams, M. (2001a). Drug abuse prevention among minority adolescents: Posttest and one-year follow-up of a school-based preventive intervention. Prevention Science, 2(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010025311161

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 3,621

Population:

• Age — Mean=12.9 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 61% African American, 22% Hispanic, 6% Asian, 6% White, and 5% Other
• Gender — 53% Female and 47% Male
• Status — Participants were economically disadvantaged youth from predominantly low socioeconomic status families.

Location/Institution: Twenty-nine middle schools in New York City

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] in a sample of predominantly minority students in 29 New York City schools. Participants were randomly assigned to either the LST intervention group or to a non-treatment control group. Measures utilized include the Teenager’s Self-Test: Cigarette Smoking, the Coping Assessment Battery, the Gambrill and Richey Assertion Inventory, and the Eysenck Personality Inventory. Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that those who received the program reported less smoking, drinking, drunkenness, inhalant use, and polydrug use relative to controls. Limitations include a need for longer-term follow-up, use of self-report measures, and lack of generalizability to other minority populations.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., Diaz, T., & Ifill-Williams, M. (2001). Preventing binge drinking during early adolescence: One- and two- year follow-up of a school-based preventive intervention. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15(4), 360–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.15.4.360

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 3,041

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grades 7–9
• Race/Ethnicity — 57% African American, 24% Hispanic, 8% Asian, 6% Other, 3% White, and 2% Native American
• Gender — 56% Female and 44% Male
• Status — Participants were economically disadvantaged youth from predominantly low socioeconomic status families.

Location/Institution: Twenty-nine middle schools in New York City

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] on reducing binge drinking in a sample of minority and inner-city middle-school students. Participants were randomly assigned to either the LST intervention group or to the services as usual control group. Measures utilized include the Teenager’s Self-Test: Cigarette Smoking, the Coping Assessment Battery, the Gambrill and Richey Assertion Inventory, and the Eysenck Personality Inventory. Results indicate that a school-based drug abuse prevention approach previously found to be effective among White youth significantly reduced binge drinking among urban minority youth. Moreover, the program also significantly affected proximal drinking variables, including drinking knowledge, prodrinking attitudes, and peer drinking norms. Limitations include reliance on self-report methods and generalizability to other minority populations.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 2 years.

Spoth, R. L., Redmond, C., Trudeau, L., & Shin, C. (2002). Longitudinal substance initiation outcomes for a universal preventive intervention combining family and school programs. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(2), 129–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.16.2.129

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,115

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grades 6–8
• Race/Ethnicity — 96% Caucasian
• Gender — 53% Male
• Status — Participants were in 6–8th grade.

Location/Institution: Thirty-six rural schools in twenty-two contiguous counties in a Midwestern state

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the substance initiation effects of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program], combining family and school-based competency-training intervention components in middle schools. Participant schools were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: (a) the classroom-based LST and the Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Children 10–14, (b) LST only, or (c) a control condition. Measures utilized include a questionnaire for self-reported alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana use, as well as several cognitive, attitudinal, and personality variables, and the Substance Initiation Index (SII). Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that students who received both the combined and LST-only interventions showed significant effects on substance and marijuana initiation. Limitations include lack of generalizability due to racial demographic, reductions in the sample size over the course of the study, and use of self-report measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 1 year.

Spoth, R., Randall, G. K., Shin, C., & Redmond, C. (2005). Randomized study of combined universal family and school preventive interventions: patterns of long-term effects on initiation, regular use, and weekly drunkenness. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19(4), 372–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.19.4.372

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,109

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grades 7–9
• Race/Ethnicity — 96% Caucasian
• Gender — 53% Male
• Status — Participants were in 7–9th grade.

Location/Institution: Thirty-six rural schools in twenty-two contiguous counties in a Midwestern state

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (2002). The purpose of the study was to report findings on Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] from an in-school assessment 2.5 years past baseline. Participant schools were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: (a) the classroom-based LST and the Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Children 10–14, (b) LST only, or (c) a control condition. Measures utilized include the Regular Alcohol Use (RAU). Saliva samples were also collected using a variant of the "bogus pipeline" procedure. Results indicate that while the earlier significant outcome on a substance initiation index was replicated, and positive point-in-time results for weekly drunkenness was observed, there were no statistically significant outcomes for regular alcohol use. Limitations include lack of generalizability due to a predominantly White sample and reliance on self-reported measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 2 years.

Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., & Nichols, T. R. (2006). Effects of a school-based drug abuse prevention program for adolescents on HIV risk behaviors in young adulthood. Prevention Science, 7(1), 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-006-0025-6

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 2,042

Population:

• Age — Mean=24.6 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 91% White
• Gender — 1080 Female and 962 Male
• Status — Participants were young adults who participated in Botvin Lifeskills or the control group in 7th through 9th grades.

Location/Institution: Primarily middle-class suburban and rural areas of New York State

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Botvin et al. (1990). The purpose of the study was to examine six-year follow-up data to (1) investigate the long-term impact of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] on drug use and sexual behaviors that put one at elevated risk for HIV infection; and (2) use growth modeling procedures to examine potential mechanisms of intervention effects. Participant schools were randomized into one of three conditions: (1) LST with 1-day training workshop for providers, (2) LST with videotaped training, or (3) “treatment as usual” control group. Measures utilized include questionnaires on several demographic variables, substance use behavior, and risky sexual behavior. Results indicate that the LST intervention had a direct protective effect on HIV risk behavior in the overall sample in young adulthood. Furthermore, among participants receiving 60% or more of the prevention program, analyses showed that the intervention significantly reduced growth in alcohol and marijuana intoxication over the course of adolescence, which in turn was associated with a reduction in later HIV risk behavior. Limitations include a low retention rate of the baseline sample completing the follow-up, not allowing for a detailed event-level analysis of sexual and drug-related risk behaviors due to design of the assessment, using self-report data, not including the full spectrum of behaviors that put one at risk for HIV, and lack of generalizability due to sample demographics.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 years.

Spoth, R., Trudeau, L., Shin, C., & Redmond, C. (2008a). Long–term effects of universal preventive interventions on prescription drug misuse. Addiction, 103(7), 1160–1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02160.x

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 398

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grades 7–12
• Race/Ethnicity — 98% Caucasian
• Gender — Not specified
• Status — Participants were young adults who participated in Botvin Lifeskills or the control group in 6th through 12th grades.

Location/Institution: Public schools in the Midwest

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (2002). The purpose of the study was to report supplemental reports on tests of the long-term effects of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] during middle school on 17–21-year-olds’ prescription drug misuse 5.5 years past baseline. The study design involved two randomized, controlled prevention trials. Participant schools in study 1, were randomly assigned to the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), Preparing for the Drug Free Years, or a control condition. Participant schools in study 2, were randomly assigned to a revised ISFP plus LST, LST alone, or a control condition. Measures utilized include a questionnaire for self-reported lifetime and past-year prescription drug misuse. Results indicate that in study 1, ISFP 12th-graders’ past year narcotic misuse was significantly less than controls, as were ISFP 21-year-olds’ life-time narcotic and barbiturate misuse rates. In study 2, LST + ISFP 10–14 showed significant effects on life-time prescription drug misuse at the 11th-grade follow-up, while effects at the 12th-grade follow-up were marginally significant. Although the LST-only participants reported less non-prescribed medication use than controls at both the 11th and 12th grade assessments, results were not significant. Limitations include lack of generalizability due to sample demographics and the use of self-report measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 5.5 years.

Spoth, R. L., Randall, G. K., Trudeau, L., Shin, C., & Redmond, C. (2008b). Substance use outcomes 5½ years past baseline for partnership-based, family-school preventive interventions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96(1-2), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.023

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,677

Population:

• Age — Not specified. Participants were in Grades 7–12
• Race/Ethnicity — 96% White
• Gender — 53% Male and 47% Female
• Status — Participants were in 7th-12th grade.

Location/Institution: Thirty-six public schools in the rural Midwest

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (2002). The study reports the adolescent substance use outcomes of Life Skills Training (LST) [now known as Botvin LifeSkills Training Middle School Program] 5½ years past baseline. The study design involved two randomized, controlled prevention trials. Participant schools in study 1 were randomly assigned to the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), Preparing for the Drug Free Years, or a control condition. Participant schools in study 2 were randomly assigned to a revised ISFP plus LST, LST alone, or a control condition. Measures utilized include the Substance Initiation Index (SII). Results indicate that for all substance initiation outcomes, one or both intervention groups showed significant, positive differences at 12th grade and/or significant growth trajectory outcomes when compared with the control group. Limitations include lack of generalizability due to a predominantly White sample and reliance on self-report measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 5.5 years.