Grossman, J. B., & Tierney, J. P. (1998). Does mentoring work?: An impact study of the Big Brothers Big Sisters program. Evaluation Review, 22(3), 403–426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X9802200304

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,138

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 57% Minority
• Gender — 62% Male and 38% Female
• Status — Participants were children who applied to the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) agency.

Location/Institution: Agencies in San Antonio, TX; Columbus, OH; Houston, TX; Minneapolis, MN; Philadelphia, PA; Phoenix, AZ; and Wichita, KS; and Community Partners for Youth of Rochester, NY

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to determine the efficacy of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) program. Participants were randomly assigned to a BBBSA program or a waitlist control group. Measures utilized include the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA). Results indicate that over an 18-month period, youth participating in BBBSA programs were significantly less likely to have started using illegal drugs or alcohol, hit someone, or skipped school. They were also more confident about their school performance and got along better with their families. Limitations include differences in the length of time the mentoring relationship was maintained, and the lack of an active control group.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Saintonge, S., Achille, P. A., & Lachance, L. (1998). The influence of Big Brothers on the separation-individuation of adolescents from single-parent families. Adolescence, 33(130), 343–353. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ583354

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 87

Population:

• Age — 12–17 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — 100% Male
• Status — Participants were youth with mother-headed single parent families involved in Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA), youth with mother-headed single parent families not involved in BBBSA, and youth with intact families.

Location/Institution: Montreal

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to investigate the role of Big Brothers in the separation-individuation process of adolescents from single-parent families in the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) program. Participants matched with BBBSA were compared with two control groups (adolescents from single parent families without BBBSA and those from intact families) on relevant variables. Measures utilized include a French Canadian adaptation of the Separation-Individuation Test of Adolescence (SITA). Results indicate that participants matched with the BBBSA program were less affected by parental rejection than were adolescents in the two control groups. They also appeared to have healthier narcissism than did adolescents from single-parent families without BBBSA but were more anxious when relating to male teachers than were adolescents from intact families. Limitations include the small sample sizes, and the lack of randomization.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Rhodes, J. E., Haight, W. L., & Briggs, E. C. (1999). The influence of mentoring on the peer relationships of foster youth in relative and nonrelative care. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9(2), 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0902_4

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 90

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 62% African American, 24% White, 6% Hispanic, 3% American Indian, 3% Biracial, and 1% Other
• Gender — 54% Male and 46% Female
• Status — Participants were youth with a foster parent, guardian, or extended family member as the custodial parent.

Location/Institution: Not specified

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used a subset of the same sample as Grossman & Tierney (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) mentoring model on the peer relationships of foster youth in relative and nonrelative care. Participants were randomly assigned to either the treatment or control condition. Measures utilized include a history of abuse-trauma, monitoring of mentoring relationships, parent report and Features of Children’s Friendship Scale. Results indicate that foster parents were more likely than nonfoster parents to report that their child showed improved social skills, as well as greater comfort and trust interacting with others, as a result of the intervention. In addition, whereas the peer relationships of all nonfoster youth remained stable, treatment foster youth reported improvements in prosocial and self-esteem enhancing support, and control foster youth showed decrements over time. Results also indicate that treatment youth in relative foster care reported slight improvements in prosocial support, whereas treatment youth in nonrelative foster care reported slight declines. All foster youth in the control group reported decreases in peer support over time, with nonrelative foster youth reporting the sharpest declines. Limitations include differences in the length of time the mentoring relationship was maintained, and the lack of an active control group.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (2000). Agents of change: Pathways through which mentoring relationships influence adolescents' academic adjustment. Research Child Development, 71(6), 1662–1671. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00256

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,138

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years (Mean=12.25 years)
• Race/Ethnicity — 57% Minority
• Gender — 62% Male and 38% Female
• Status — Participants were children who applied to the Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) agency.

Location/Institution: Agencies in San Antonio, TX; Columbus, OH; Houston TX; Minneapolis, MN; Philadelphia, PA; Phoenix, AZ; and Wichita, KS; and Community Partners for Youth of Rochester, NY

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Grossman & Tierney (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) model on mentoring relationships on adolescents' academic outcomes by improvements in parental relationships. Participants were randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group and administered questions at baseline and 18 months later. Measures utilized include the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA). Results indicate that the hypothesized model provided a significantly better explanation of the data than the alternative. In addition to improvements in parental relationships, mentoring led to reductions in unexcused absences and improvements in perceived scholastic competence. Direct effects of mentoring on global self-worth, school value, and grades were not detected but were instead mediated through improved parental relationships and scholastic competence. Limitations include differences in the length of time the mentoring relationship was maintained, and the lack of an active control group.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Thompson, L. A., & Kelly-Vance, L. (2001). The impact of mentoring on academic achievement of at-risk youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(3), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(01)00134-7

Type of Study: Pretest–posttest study with a nonequivalent control group (Quasi-experimental)
Number of Participants: 25

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Treatment Group: 92% White and 8% Hispanic; Control Group: 77% White, 15% African American, and 8% Hispanic.
• Gender — 100% Male
• Status — Participants were from a single parent home with one other risk factor.

Location/Institution: Big Brothers Big Sisters of the Midlands

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of mentoring on the academic achievement of at-risk youth involved in mentoring programs at a Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) agency. Participants were assigned to BBBSA or a control group. Measures utilized include the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test. Results indicate that boys in BBBSA made significantly higher academic gains than the control group, even after controlling for ability. Limitations include the lack of randomization, preexisting group differences, small sample size, and lack of female subjects.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 199–219. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014680827552

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 1,138

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 58% Minority
• Gender — 62% Male and 38% Female
• Status — Participants were children who presented to the Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) agency.

Location/Institution: Eight BBBSA agencies

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Grossman & Tierney (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the effects and predictors of duration in youth mentor relationships. Participants were randomly assigned to either long-term mentorship assignments (treatment) at select Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) agencies, or short-term mentorship assignments (control group), and administered questions at baseline and 18 months later. Measures utilized included the Inventory of Parents and Peer Attachment (IPPA), the Self-Perception Profile for Children, and other questions relating to grades, attendance, school value, self-worth, and quality and length of relationships. Results indicate that adolescents in relationships that lasted a year or longer reported the largest number of improvements, with fewer effects emerging among youth who were in relationships that terminated earlier. Adolescents who were in relationships that terminated within a very short period of time reported decreases in several indicators of functioning. Older adolescents, as well as those who had been referred for services or had sustained emotional, sexual or physical abuse, were most likely to be in early terminating relationships, as were married volunteers aged 26–30, and those with lower incomes. Limitations include differences in the length of time the mentoring relationship was maintained, and the lack of an active control group.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Rhodes, J. E., Reddy, R., & Grossman, J. B. (2005). The protective influence of mentoring on adolescents' substance use: Direct and indirect pathways. Applied Developmental Science, 9(1), 31–47. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0901_4

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 928

Population:

• Age — 10–16 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 60% Minority
• Gender — 63% Male and 37% Female
• Status — Participants were children who presented to the Big Brothers Big Sisters agency.

Location/Institution: Eight BBBSA agencies

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used a subset of the same sample as Grossman & Tierney (1998). The purpose of the study was to test the mentoring relationships in the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) programs in relation to reducing substance use both directly and indirectly through improvements in adolescents’ self- perceptions and close relationships. Participants were randomly assigned to either BBBSA or control group. Measures utilized include the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment, Features of Children’s Friendship Scale, the Self-Perception Profile for Children, and questions regarding alcohol and drug use. Results indicate that being matched for longer than 12 months had significant impacts on the frequency of substance use and on parental relationships. Parental relationships mediated the relationship between mentoring and substance use. Limitations include differences in the length of time the mentoring relationship was maintained, the lack of an active control group, and the limited nature of the alcohol and drug use items.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

De Wit, D. J., Lipman, E., Manzano-Munguia, M., Bisanz, J., Graham, K., Offord, D. R., O'Neill, E., Pepler, D., Shaver, K. (2007). Feasibility of a randomized controlled trial for evaluating the effectiveness of the Big Brothers Big Sisters community match program at the national level. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(3), 383–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.09.003

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 71

Population:

• Age — 7–14 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 77% White
• Gender — 51% Male and 49% Female
• Status — Participants were families who applied to one of two Big Brother Big Sisters agencies.

Location/Institution: Southern Ontario

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to assess the feasibility of a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) community match programs at the national level. Participants were randomly assigned to the BBBSA program or a waitlist control. Measures utilized include the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, the Centre for Epidemiology Studies Depression Scale, Hare Self-esteem Scale, Survey of Children’s Social Support, Elementary Level Student and Parent Forms of the Social Skills Rating System, Coping Scale for Children and Youth, along with project developed questions. Results indicate that there were beneficial program effects for five outcomes (child self-reports): symptoms of emotional problems, symptoms of social anxiety (fear of negative peer evaluations and generalized social anxiety and distress), teacher social support, and social skills (self-control). Limitations include the small sample size, and the use of retrospective measures on the match relationship quality.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: Varied.

Grossman, J. B., Chan, C. S., Schwartz, S. E., & Rhodes, J. E. (2012). The test of time in school-based mentoring: The role of relationship duration and re-matching on academic outcomes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49(1–2), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9435-0

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: Treatment Group: 1,139; Control Group: 574

Population:

• Age — Approximately 11 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 794 White, 453 Hispanic/Latino, 372 Black/African American, 212 Native American, 92 Asian/Pacific Islander, and 83 Other
• Gender — 929 Female and 784 Male
• Status — Participants were youth enrolled in the Big Brothers Big Sisters program.

Location/Institution: Ten Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) agencies across the country

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Grossman & Tierney (1998). The purpose of the study was to report the influence of match length and rematching on the effectiveness of school-based mentoring in a national study of youth in Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) programs. Participants were randomized to BBBSA or a wait-list control group. Measures utilized include teacher reports, mentor and mentee reports, and a 12-item checklist adapted from the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Results indicate that at the end of the first year, youth in intact relationships showed significant academic improvement, while youth in matches that terminated prematurely showed no impact. Those who were rematched after terminations showed negative impacts. Limitations include lack of post-mentoring follow-up, concerns about generalizability to other mentoring programs, and small subsample sizes resulting in reduced statistical power to detect small positive or negative effects.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.

Herrera, C., DuBois, D. L., Heubach, J., & Grossman, J. B. (2023). Effects of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America Community-Based Mentoring Program on social-emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes of participating youth: A randomized controlled trial. Children and Youth Services Review, 144, Article 106742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106742

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 764

Population:

• Age — 9–14 years
• Race/Ethnicity — 40% White, 28% Black/African American, 21% Hispanic/Latino, and 11% Other
• Gender — 42% Female
• Status — Participants were youth enrolled in the Big Brothers Big Sisters program.

Location/Institution: Two BBBSA agencies on the West Coast

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study is to present findings from a randomized controlled trial of effects of the Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA) Community-Based Mentoring Program on the social-emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes of participating youth over a 13-month period. Participants were randomly assigned either to be immediately eligible for being matched with a mentor (treatment group) or to remain on the program waitlist for 13 months. Measures utilized include the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), the Prosocial Behavior subscale of the Social Emotional and Character Development Scale (SECDS), and the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC). Results indicate that the effects of mentoring (i.e., being offered a mentor) that reached statistical significance all favored the treatment group for youth-reported depressive symptoms, parent-reported emotional symptoms, peer problems, conduct problems and the total difficulties score on the SDQ, and the parent-report and combined youth- and parent-report composite indices at the 13-month assessment. Limitations include a lack of indicated impacts in this study may not reflect a true absence of effects; the study did not observe outcomes over the full course of program involvement; the reports by treatment youth and their parents may have reflected some motivational bias; both of the agencies were from the West Coast and are not representative of the full range of BBBSA programs; and levels of internal reliability were only marginally acceptable for some of the measures, which suggests that measurement error could be a factor affecting the findings.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: None.