Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., Spoth, R. L., & Redmond, C. (2007). Influence of a family-focused substance use preventive intervention on growth in adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(3), 541–564. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00534.x

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 429

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=11.3 years; Parents: Mean=37–40 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — Children: 52% Female; Parents: Not specified
• Status — Participants were parents and their children in 6th to 12th grade.

Location/Institution: Thirty-three rural schools in 19 contiguous counties in a Midwestern state

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on self-reported adolescent depressive symptoms 6 years after the PDFY intervention was completed. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition which was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include the Child Behavior Checklist—Youth Self-Report (CBCL-YSR), and self-reported adolescent poly-substance use questionnaire. Results indicate that in comparison to the control group, PDFY reduced the rate of increase in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Additionally, mediation of PDFY’s effect on depressive symptoms through reduced poly-substance use was tested; the indirect effect was only marginally significant for participants in the control group. Limitations include lack of generalizability of the findings to clinical populations, ethnic minority families, and to families living in suburban and urban settings and reliance on self-reported measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 years.

Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Haggerty, K. P., Hawkins, J. D., Redmond, C., Spoth, R. L., & Shin, C. (2009). Gender moderation and social developmental mediation of the effect of a family-focused substance use preventive intervention on young adult alcohol abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 34(6–7), 599–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.03.032

Type of Study: Randomized controlled trial
Number of Participants: 429

Population:

• Age — Children: Mean=11.3 years, Parents: Mean=37–40 years
• Race/Ethnicity — Not specified
• Gender — Children: 52% Female; Parents: Not specified
• Status — Participants were parents and their children in 6th to 12th grade.

Location/Institution: Thirty-three rural schools in 19 contiguous counties in a Midwestern state

Summary: (To include basic study design, measures, results, and notable limitations)
The study used the same sample as Mason et al. (2007). The purpose of the study was to examine the long-term impact of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on young adult alcohol abuse disorder, addressing theory-based questions about how, and for whom, the program had its effects on the outcomes. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition which was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include the Child Behavior Checklist-Youth Self-Report (CBCL-YSR), the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS), and self-reported adolescent poly-substance use questionnaire. Results indicate that PDFY reduced the rate of alcohol abuse among target young women, with evidence that this effect was mediated by increased prosocial skills. The rate of alcohol abuse among PDFY group males was not significantly different from that of control group males. Limitations include lack of generalizability of the findings to clinical populations, ethnic minority families, and to families living in suburban and urban settings and reliance on self-reported measures.

Length of controlled postintervention follow-up: 6 years.

The following studies were not included in rating GGC on the Scientific Rating Scale...

Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Haggerty, K., & Ward, T. (1995). A controlled parenting skills outcome study examining individual differences and attendance effects. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(2), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.2307/353698

The purpose of the study was to examine the efficacy of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on family-skills-focused interventions in preventing juvenile substance abuse and conduct problems. Participants were randomly assigned to a PDFY group or a wait-listed control group. Families in the wait-list control group were offered the PDFY program following completion of posttesting. Measures utilized include written questionnaires and self-reported adolescent poly-substance use. Results indicate that the program increased proactive communication between parents and children as compared to participants in the control group. Mothers in the PDFY group exhibited significantly more proactive communication following the intervention than did control mothers. Fathers in the PDFY group exhibited significantly more proactive communication in interactions with their children in the problem-solving task than did control fathers following the intervention. Limitations include lack of reliable measures and lack of follow-up. · Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Spoth, R., Haggerty, K., & Zhu, K. (1997). Effects of a preventive parent-training intervention on observed family interactions: Proximal outcomes from preparing for the drug free years. Journal of Community Psychology, 25(4), 337–352. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6629(199707)25:43.0.CO;2-R

The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (1995). The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on targeted parental behaviors. Participants were randomly assigned to a PDFY group or a wait-listed control group. Families in the wait-list control group were offered the PDFY program following completion of posttesting. Measures utilized include the Family Interaction Scales. Results indicate that the program increased proactive communication between parents and children as compared to participants in the control group. Mothers in the PDFY group exhibited significantly more proactive communication following the intervention than did control mothers. At the end of the PDFY intervention, fathers in the PDFY condition exhibited significantly more proactive communication in interactions with their children in the problem-solving task than did control fathers. Limitations include reliance on self-reported measures and lack of follow-up. Note: This article was not used in the rating process since child symptoms were not reported.

Spoth, R., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (1998). Direct and indirect latent-variable parenting outcomes of two universal family-focused preventive interventions: Extending a public health-oriented research base. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 385–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.385

The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of Preparing for the Drug Free Years Program (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices], the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), and a minimal-contact control condition on parenting behaviors to prevent substance and alcohol abuse in adolescents. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition, an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include self-report and observational portions of in-home interviews. Results indicate that both PDFY and ISFP intervention groups continued to have a statistically significant effect on parenting behaviors post treatment. The parenting behaviors targeted directly by the intervention influence the more global parenting practices of general child management and parent-child affective quality compared to the control group. Because differences in the content of the PDFY and ISFP warranted the application of different measurement models, the interventions were not compared directly. Limitations include no significant differences in effect between PDFY and ISFP, lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban setting, and lack of reliable and valid measures. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Redmond, C., Spoth, R., Shin, C., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). Modeling long-term parent outcomes of two universal family-focused preventive interventions: One-year follow-up results. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(6), 975–984. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.975

The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the intervention-effects models for parenting outcomes with data collected from respondents 1 year following the posttest in Preparing for the Drug-Free Years Program (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices], the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), and a minimal-contact control condition. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition, an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include parallel social development model measures, parents’ norms against substance use measures, and a measure of proactive family management. Results indicate that both PDFY and ISFP intervention groups continued to have a statistically significant effect on parenting behaviors, which, in turn, had significant effects on both parent child affective quality and general child management as compared to the control group. Limitations include no significant differences in effect between interventions, lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban settings, and lack of reliable and valid measures. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Park, J., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., Duncan, S. C., & Spoth, R. (2000). Effects of the "Preparing for the Drug Free Years" curriculum on growth in alcohol use and risk for alcohol use in early adolescence. Prevention Science, 1(3), 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010021205638

The study used of the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998).The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices], the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), and a minimal-contact control condition on enhanced growth in or maintenance of family norms against alcohol and other drug use and proactive family management, and to reduce or curb the growth in family conflict. The study also examined whether or not PDFY would improve or help to maintain adolescents’ likelihood of resisting antisocial influence from peers as well as reduce or curb the growth in alcohol use during early adolescence. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition-an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include parallel social development model measures, parents’ norms against substance use measures, and a measure of proactive family management. Results indicate that PDFY directly reduced the growth in adolescent alcohol use from age 12 to age 15 1/2 as compared to the control group. Additionally, the intervention significantly strengthened parental norms against alcohol and other drug use by adolescents over time and also helped to maintain proactive family management practices over time, compared to a slight decline in family management practices among control families. No significant PDFY effects were found on growth in family conflict or refusal skills over the period from age 11 to age 14. Limitations include lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban settings, and lack of reliable and valid measures. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (2001). Preparing for the Drug Free Years: Session-specific effects of a universal parent-training intervention with rural families. Journal of Drug Education, 31(1), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.2190/3KP9-V42V-V38L-6G0Y

The study used a subset of the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on specific parenting behaviors targeted by individual program sessions (drug and alcohol abuse, family conflict, strengthening family bonds). Participants were randomized to either PDFY or a waitlist control group. Measures utilized include items from self-administered surveys assessing the social development constructs targeted in the PDFY curriculum. Results indicate that compared to those in the control group, participants in PDFY reported that they had significantly more positive involvement with their child and made more use of positive rewards in parenting, reported setting clearer standards regarding substance use and conflict among family members, and reported that their child would be less likely to refuse influences to drugs. Limitations include lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban setting, lack of reliable and valid measures, and lack of follow-up. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Spoth, R. L., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (2001). Randomized trial of brief family interventions for general populations: Adolescent substance use outcomes 4 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(4), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.4.627

The study used a subset of the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of Preparing for the Drug-Free Years Program (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices], the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), and a minimal-contact control condition on preventing substance use in adolescents. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition-an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include initiation and current use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Results indicate that both PDFY and ISFP intervention groups had significant differences in initiation and current use as compared to the control group. Limitations include no significant differences in effect between interventions, lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban settings, and lack of reliable and valid measures Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., & Spoth, R. L. (2003). Reducing adolescents' growth in substance use and delinquency: Randomized trial effects of a preventive parent-training intervention. Prevention Science, 4(3), 203–212. https://doi.org/doi:10.1023/A:1024653923780

The study used the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine the effectiveness of Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices] on the relationship between growth in adolescent substance use and delinquency. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition-an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include self-reported adolescent poly-substance use. Results indicate that adolescents assigned to the PDFY intervention condition had a slower rate of linear increase over time in both substance use and delinquency compared with adolescents assigned to the control condition. Limitations include lack of reliable and valid measures; generalizability of the findings are limited because of the specific substance use and delinquency patterns, rural residence, and predominantly White composition of the sample. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.

Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Shin, C., & Azevedo, K. (2004). Brief family intervention effects on adolescent substance initiation: School-level curvilinear growth curve analyses 6 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 535–542. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.535

The study used a subset of the same sample as Spoth et al. (1998). The purpose of the study was to examine Preparing for the Drug-Free Years Program (PDFY) [now called Guiding Good Choices], the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (ISFP), and a minimal-contact control condition on trajectories of substance initiation over a period of 6 years following a baseline assessment. Participants were randomized by block design, in which schools were blocked on enrollment and on the proportion of lower income students to one of three conditions: a minimal-contact control condition, the PDFY condition, and the Iowa Strengthening Families Program condition-an intervention condition that was not examined in this study. Measures utilized include questionnaires on alcohol and tobacco use. Results indicate that both family-focused interventions slowed the growth in initiation of some substances over a 6-year period following the baseline assessment, during which the mean age of participants increased from 11.8 years to 18.2 years as compared to the control group. A greater number of delayed growth effects were in evidence for the ISFP, with PDFY effects shown only on tobacco use growth rates as compared to the control group. Limitations include no significant differences in effect between interventions, lack of generalizability of the findings to ethnic minority families and to families living in suburban and urban settings, and lack of reliable and valid measures. Note: This article was not used in the rating process due to criteria on the Scientific Rating Scale which requires that outcome measures be reliable and valid, and administered consistently and accurately across all subjects.